What Do Sociolinguists Study?
What is a Sociolinguist?
Sociolinguists
study the relationship between language and society. They are interested in
explaining why we speak differently in different contexts, and they are
concerned with identifying the social functions of language and the ways it is
used to convey social meaning.
Why do we say
the same thing in different ways?
Languages
provide a variety of ways of saying the same thing – addressing and greeting
others, describing things, paying compliments. The choice of linguistic form
rather than another is a useful clue to non-linguistic information. Linguistic
variation can provide social information.
What are the
different ways we say things?
Sociolinguists
are also interested in the different types of linguistic variation used to
express and reflect social factors. Vocabulary or word choice is one area of
linguistic variation. But linguistic variation occurs at other levels of
linguistic analysis too: sounds, word-structure (morphology), and grammar (syntax).
Within each of these linguistic levels there is variation which offers the
speaker a choice of ways of expression. Besides, using different pronunciation
conveys social information too. Despite their common regional origins they have
different social backgrounds and that is reflected in their speech. On the
whole people acquire their knowledge of varieties and how to use them
appropiately in the same way that they acquire their knowledge of most other
aspects of language – by extensive exposure and a process of osmosis.
Social Factors,
Dimensions, and Explanations
Social Factors
In any situation
linguistic choices will generally reflect the influence of one or more of the
following components
1.
The participants: who is speaking and who are
they speaking to?
2.
The setting or social context of the
interaction: where are they speaking?
3.
The topic: who is being talked about?
4.
The function: why are they speaking?
Social factors
are basic components in sociolinguistic explanations of why we don’t all speak
the same way, and we don’t all speak in the same way all of the time.
Social
Dimensions
Four different
dimensions for analysis which relate to the social factors are:
1.
A social distance scale concerned with
participants relationship. This scale is useful in emphasising that how well we
know someone is relevant factor in linguistic choice.
2.
A status scale concerned with participant
relationships. This scale points to the relevance of relative status in some linguistic
choices
3.
A formal scale relating to the setting or type
of interaction. This scale is useful in assessing the influence of the social
setting or type of interaction on language choice.
4.
Two functional scales relating to the purposes
or topic of interaction. The two identified in these scales are particularly
pervasive and basic. Language can convey objective information of a referential
kind; and it can also express how someone is feeling.
Looking for
Explanations
Sociolinguists
aim to describe sociolinguistic variation and, if possible, explain why it
happens. The steps which need to be taken in providing an explanation are:
1.
To identify clearly the linguistic variation involved
(e.g. vocabulary, sounds, grammatical constructions, dialects, languages)
2.
To identify clearly the different social or non-
linguistic factors which lead speakers to use one form rather than another
(e.g. features relating to participants, setting or function of the
interaction)
Other social factors affecting code choice
- People may select a particular variety or code because it makes it easier to discuss a particular topic, regardless of where they are speaking.
- Particular topics may regularly be discussed in one code rather than another, regardless of the setting or addressee.
- When both participants share more than one variety, then other factors will contribute to the appropriate choice.
- the status relationship between people may be relevant in selecting the appropriate code
- Social Role may also be important and is often a factor contributing to status differences between people
- features of the setting and the dimension of formality may also be important in selecting the appropriate variety or code.
- Another relevant factor is the function or goal of the interaction.
- Models can usefully go beyond the social factors summarised in the domain concept to take account of social dimensions such as social distance, relative status or role, degrees of formality and the function or goal of the interaction.
- diglossia has three crucial features or criteria:
1. Two distinct varieties of the same language are used in the community, with one regarded as a high (H) variety and the other a low (L) variety.
2. Each variety is used for quite distinct functions; H and L complement each other.
3. No one uses the H variety in everyday conversation.
- Most of the vocabulary of H and L is the same. But, not surprisingly since it is used in more formal domains, the H vocabulary includes many more formal and technical terms.
- In most diglossia situations the H form would not occur in everyday conversation, and the L form would generally seem odd in writing.
Attitude to H vs L in Diglossia Situation
- Attitude to H variety are usually very respectful. These attitudes are reinforced by the fact that the H variety is the one which is described and fixed, or standardised, in grammar books and dictionaries.
- Attitude to the L variety are varied and often ambivalent. L variety is used only locally. People may rate the L variety very low.
- the term diglossia describes societal or institutionalised bilingualism, where two varieties are required to cover all the community's domains. But there are diglossic communities where there is very limited.
Extending the Scope of Diglossia
- L is learned at home and the H variety in school, but some people may use H in the home too.
- Literature is usually written in H, but when the L variety begins to gain status people begin to use it to write in too.
Polyglossia
- Polyglossia is s useful term for describing situations where more than two distinct codes or varieties are used for clearly distinct purposes or in clearly distinguishable situations
- It is worth considering whether the term diglossia or perhaps polyglossia should be used to describe complementary code use in all communities
- A speaker may similarly switch to another language as a signal of group membership and shared ethnicity with an addressee
- The switches are often very short and they are made primarily for social reasons - to signal the speaker's ethnic identity and solidarity with the addressee.
- Switches motivated by the identity and relationship between participants often express a move long the solidarity/social distance dimension.
- More formal relationships, which sometimes involve status differences too, are often expressed in the H variety or code. Friendly relationships involving minimal social distance are generally expressed in an L code.
- For many bilinguals certain kinds of referential content are more appropriately or more easily expressed in one language than the other.
- Many bilinguals and multilinguals are adept at exploiting the rhetorical possibilities of their linguistic repertoires.
- Attitudes to a minority language are very important in determining not only its use in a code-switching style, but also in very chances of survival.
Language Choice in Multilingual Communities
Choosing your Variety or Code
What is your
linguistic repertoire?
-
The factors that lead in choosing one code
rather than another are the kinds of social factors to language choice in
speech communities throughout the world.
Domains of language
use
-
Domain is clearly a very general concept which
draws on three important social factors in code choice (participants, setting
and topic)
-
They are known as domains of language use, a
term popularised by an American sociolinguist, Joshua Fishman.
Modelling variety
or code choice
-
While it obviously oversimplifies the complexity
of bilingual interaction, nevertheless a model of the variety can be useful in
a number of ways. First, it forces us to be very clear about which domains and
varieties are relevant to language choice. A second, it provides a clear basis
for comparing patterns of code choice in different speech communities.Other social factors affecting code choice
- People may select a particular variety or code because it makes it easier to discuss a particular topic, regardless of where they are speaking.
- Particular topics may regularly be discussed in one code rather than another, regardless of the setting or addressee.
- When both participants share more than one variety, then other factors will contribute to the appropriate choice.
- the status relationship between people may be relevant in selecting the appropriate code
- Social Role may also be important and is often a factor contributing to status differences between people
- features of the setting and the dimension of formality may also be important in selecting the appropriate variety or code.
- Another relevant factor is the function or goal of the interaction.
- Models can usefully go beyond the social factors summarised in the domain concept to take account of social dimensions such as social distance, relative status or role, degrees of formality and the function or goal of the interaction.
Diglossia
A Linguistic Division of Labour- diglossia has three crucial features or criteria:
1. Two distinct varieties of the same language are used in the community, with one regarded as a high (H) variety and the other a low (L) variety.
2. Each variety is used for quite distinct functions; H and L complement each other.
3. No one uses the H variety in everyday conversation.
- Most of the vocabulary of H and L is the same. But, not surprisingly since it is used in more formal domains, the H vocabulary includes many more formal and technical terms.
- In most diglossia situations the H form would not occur in everyday conversation, and the L form would generally seem odd in writing.
Attitude to H vs L in Diglossia Situation
- Attitude to H variety are usually very respectful. These attitudes are reinforced by the fact that the H variety is the one which is described and fixed, or standardised, in grammar books and dictionaries.
- Attitude to the L variety are varied and often ambivalent. L variety is used only locally. People may rate the L variety very low.
- the term diglossia describes societal or institutionalised bilingualism, where two varieties are required to cover all the community's domains. But there are diglossic communities where there is very limited.
Extending the Scope of Diglossia
- L is learned at home and the H variety in school, but some people may use H in the home too.
- Literature is usually written in H, but when the L variety begins to gain status people begin to use it to write in too.
Polyglossia
- Polyglossia is s useful term for describing situations where more than two distinct codes or varieties are used for clearly distinct purposes or in clearly distinguishable situations
- It is worth considering whether the term diglossia or perhaps polyglossia should be used to describe complementary code use in all communities
Code-switching or Code-mixing
Participants, Solidarity and Status
- People sometimes switch code within a domain or social situation. switch reflects a change in the social situation and takes positive account of the presence of a new participant- A speaker may similarly switch to another language as a signal of group membership and shared ethnicity with an addressee
- The switches are often very short and they are made primarily for social reasons - to signal the speaker's ethnic identity and solidarity with the addressee.
- Switches motivated by the identity and relationship between participants often express a move long the solidarity/social distance dimension.
- More formal relationships, which sometimes involve status differences too, are often expressed in the H variety or code. Friendly relationships involving minimal social distance are generally expressed in an L code.
Topic
- Bilinguals often find it easier to discuss particular topics in one code rather then another.- For many bilinguals certain kinds of referential content are more appropriately or more easily expressed in one language than the other.
Switching for affective functions
- Switching can achieve a range of interesting rhetorical effects. Just as the use of ethnic tags signalled ethnic group membership for speakers in the utterance.- Many bilinguals and multilinguals are adept at exploiting the rhetorical possibilities of their linguistic repertoires.
Metaphorical switching
- Each of the codes represents a set of social meanings, and the speaker draws on the associations of each, just as people use metaphors to represent complex meanings. The term also reflects the fact that this kind of switching involves rhetorical skill. skilful code-switching operates like metaphor to enrich communication.Linguistic Constraints
- The points at which people switch codes are likely to vary according to many different factors such as which codes are involved, the functions of the particular switch, and the level of proficiency in each code of the people switching.Attitudes to code-switching
- people are often unaware of the fact that they code switch. Multilingualism is norm, attitude to proficient code-switching are much more positive. it seems possible that an increase in ethnic self consciousness and confidence may alter attitude among minority group members in other communities over time.- Attitudes to a minority language are very important in determining not only its use in a code-switching style, but also in very chances of survival.
